Friday 15 April 2016

MEST4 Critical Investigation - To what extent does Orange Is the New Black promote a liberated representation of women in society? 

MEST4 Critical Investigation                                                                         Kishan Pandya
___________________________________________________________________________
‘No offence, but, uh, men being in charge has never done me any good.’[1]
To what extent does Orange Is the New Black promote a
liberated representation of women in society?        
______________________________________________________________
Jenji Kohan’s Netflix comedy-drama television series, ‘Orange Is The New Black’ (OITNB) stands as the latest flagship for the women in prison (WIP) genre of film and television. Serving as a potential catalyst for reinvigorating the sub-genre’s original outlook, the show arguably fulfils a need for ‘more realistic portrayals of women since the media are said to reflect society[2]’, which obliges that ‘such reflections should always be accurate[3]’. Despite a rarity in itself, TV shows with a predominantly female cast have earnt a reputation for persistently reinforcing a hegemonically crafted representation of women - one which is in compliance with the patriarchal values traditionally pertaining to the WIP sub-genre. OITNB however, being a show directed by Kohan who is ‘known for telling stories about women[4]’, earns the stature of a deployed ‘response to cultural changes[5]’ as it unapologetically topples all notions of ‘what a television series about women looks and sounds like[6]’.

Correspondingly, this should mean that the Netflix exclusive promotes a liberated representation of women in society, by inviting audiences to witness a tapestry of many narrative strands which are centred on multidimensional women who might otherwise be reduced to their stereotypical representations in mainstream media. Furthermore, a particularly celebrated, yet debatable, critical focus is on the show’s endeavours to ‘raise significant ontological and epistemological questions[7]’ about the portrayal of women, as well as women of colour and those of LGBT groups. Nonetheless, despite the appraisal for its capability to highlight ‘the rich, diverse experiences of women through all walks of life; not just behind bars.’[8], many critics propose an alternative reading of these narrative inclusions as a mere reinforcement of traditionally misogynistic ideas. This is inclusive of a consideration for the forms by which the screened content is designed to appease the erotic spectacle of a ‘patriarchal conscious’[9], being one of many ways which stands instead to jeopardise the show’s credibility in achieving the purpose of presenting a liberated representation of women in society.

With the many intersectional categories[10] of identity prevalent among the women in OITNB, gender representation becomes complicated in assessment. The women’s struggles are greatly perpetuated by other marginalising attributes, such as their race and expressed sexuality as well as their level of conformity to the normative behaviour expected from them as women in TV.

Television itself as a field of entertainment has experienced a revolution[11] in a multitude of ways throughout the past seventeen years of Netflix’s presence (as of 2016), although most particularly within the passing half-decade as it has maximised the benefits to be reaped from the widespread developments of new and digital media[12]. Within its recency of conception, OITNB has been critically acclaimed for not only its audacious depiction of particular groups of class, age, gender, race and ethnicity[13], but also for its symbolic worth as it represents a “profound change in the psychological calculus of entertainment”[14]. OITNB’s notoriety in the TV industry is validated by its accumulation of over three million viewers in the initial weeks of its availability on Netflix, already surpassing HBO’s ‘Boardwalk Empire’ and AMC’s ‘Breaking Bad’[15]. The WIP show thus exemplifies the success of Netflix, and more so the concept of online streaming for television as it stands to compete with elder premium networks such as HBO, already in its initial streaming debut. Henceforth, the online attention amassed by the show presents a winning formula whilst liberating itself from traditional rules of television having neglected the concept of delayed gratification[16] by a ‘Sunday night dosing model’[17] and by employing a nearly all-female cast of inexperienced actors, thus eliminating the marketing worth achieved by starring popular figures. As a result, these factors compile into further accentuating the focus on the show’s thrilling narrative which eloquently explores themes of identity.

Audiences are immediately drawn to a debate of sexuality and gender politics with the expository sequence of scenes layered over Piper Chapman’s introductory voice-over, alongside The Staple Singers’ ‘I’ll Take You There’ as background music to connote a blissful reminiscence in the protagonist’s story as an initially affluent, privileged white lady prior to her unprecedented imprisonment for a decade-aged crime. One of the scenes included in this introductory montage exhibits Piper’s past lesbian romance through a sequence of medium close-ups framing a shower sex scene, hence instantaneously presenting a debatable approach for the show’s representation of women. In light of an interpretation supportive to the revolutionary intentions of the show, the display of what is essentially, a lesbian relationship, demonstrates the unapologetic nature of the show in its decision to present a liberated representation of women who effectively (from a conservative standpoint) choose to break the traditional agenda for heterosexual relationships. A feminist lens may justify this as empowerment for women because of their challenging decision to indulge in non-traditional sexual activity which exhibits the exclusion of direct male participation. This idea of a social system which entails the practice of romantic intimacy exclusively to women, is reinforced by Hanna Rosin’s ‘The End of Men’[18], a ‘landmark, once-in-a-generation book[19] which insists on the extinction of men as an inevitable ‘new paradigm shift’[20] correlating with the empowerment of women. In fact, this ‘modern feminist anthem’[21] makes a thematically relevant appearance in the final episode of the first season, as the correctional officer Sam Healy cites it as a warning to a troubled inmate, whom he deters from lesbianism with the other inmates due to what he claims is a ploy of “the lesbian agenda”, as a consequential dystopia for men.

Whilst Healy (like every other male character of the show) is presented negatively; particularly as a homophobic misogynist; he is also crafted within the show as a villainous[22] symbol of the oppressive, yet power-paranoid patriarchy. Henceforth, this scene exemplifies one of the ways by which OITNB attempts to liberate women - by its exploration of “gender based issues”[23] through the “eyes of [...] female characters who possess distinct viewpoints”[24]. Pennsatucky, a troubled inmate whom he converses with in the stated scene, epiphanises her utopia in a world where women are no longer “catering to some misogynistic neanderthal mentality”[25] and thus retorts Healy’s paranoid impositions: “No offense, but men being in charge hasn’t ever done me any good”[26]. Considering Pennsatucky’s horrific past, (familarised to the audience in the preceding episodes) as a rape victim who is repeatedly exploited by the men in her life, this serves as a tactful narrative choice employed by the show to “emphasise issues that are more personal than explicitly political”[27]. In doing so, the show demonstrates success in presenting a liberated representation of women in society by developing an emotionally compelling narrative in which the effect of assigned character types[28], specifically, the designation of a villainous character type[29] to Healy, and that of a sympathetic heroine to the female character, serves the audience with a compelling presentation of pro-feminist ideologies evidently withheld by the producer of this text, and intended for reinforcement through its predominant purpose of entertaining viewers.

Alternatively however, the inclusion of the opening shower sex-scene, among many others throughout the show, can be deemed a reinforcement of the misogynistic nature of traditionally exploitative WIP drama designed to cater to a male audience[30], as the original agenda for the sub-genre dictates a scopophilic gratification for the heterosexual male looking at the women as the ‘erotic object’[31]. Originally, sexploitation in WIP drama takes the form of transgressions in order to construct a sexualised look to provide erotic stimulation, effectively thus titillating the heterosexual male audience. However, the use of lesbianism and sadomasochism in OITNB conversely tweaks the heterosexual dynamics of the S/M relationship, which states the man as the sadist and the woman as the masochist. The alteration of this rule can be perceived liberating for women, because a man is no longer represented as the oppressor in romantic intercourse, thus reinstating patriarchal insecurities[32] in terms of losing power in social positions to women.

The expression of gender identity is another important aspect in considering the show’s representation of women. Contrary to the belief that “women are still represented according to long standing cultural stereotypes”[33], OITNB raises complications to this notion by the portrayal of Piper’s feminine expression, which she uses to her privilege. Her normative femininity at the start of the series is manipulated to her advantage as she gains the approval of the correctional staff, particularly Healy who takes her side in the episode “Lesbian Request Denied,” in which he describes Piper as a “nice girl”[34]. Moreover, Caputo, the assistant warden of the prison is discovered by the inmates as a man who dislikes the sight of women crying, which Piper exploits in the first episode “I Wasn’t Ready” in order to be able to make a call to her fiance out of Caputo’s sympathy. These instances reinforce the depiction of Piper as a damsel in distress[35], who is faced by challenging situations in which she needs the protection of men in authority[36], and thus evidences a counter-intuitively servile representation of women. On the other hand, considering the producer’s intentions as the pilots of this plane[37] it can be argued that the ‘politicisation of women’s roles’ in this case serves a ‘betrayal of[...]ideals of femininity’[38] as Piper undoubtedly uses her patriarchally perceived reliance on men as a strength to fuel her personal agenda, hence exposing the illogicality of misogynistic ideology.

Other characters such as Daya are also depicted in a manner comformative to traditionally assigned gender roles. Dayanara Diaz, being a poverty-stricken maternal guardian of her mother’s children, takes orders from Cesar to fetch him groceries from the store and allow him to use her house as a way for him to control his drug business so that she can provide for her family. Evidently, serving as one of the ways by which the show achieves a realistic portrayal[39] of women, by simultaneously fulfilling the “will to create the context for struggle and liberation”[40] as the show reconstructs the reality of the “ways class complicates women’s oppression, for these girls are learning rituals of their social class”[41]. Whilst also developing a consensus by which women over the show can be exhibited in a manner supportive of the purpose to liberate women through representations as this particular one serves with credibility. Another episode in the second season reaffirms this value of the show, as Daya and another of the Latina inmates express their need for male intimacy. After doing so, the sequence is crafted with a series of enigmatic close-up shots hinting towards a kiss between the two female inmates. Momentarily, the male gaze[42] is appeased as the women engage in this practice of lesbianism, and thus satisfies an “existent fetishisation and pathologisation of […] Latina sexualities”[43] which therefore endangers the liberative aims of OITNB. Nevertheless, this also reinforces a realistic representation of women in society which also succeeds as a liberated one because of the absence of radicalised hyperfeminism in the discourse between the two women. Instead, they outwardly profess their heterosexual desires and are yet a demonstration of how OITNB “brings these culturally invisible women”[44] into a frame which embraces a social realism that taps into the thoughts, conflicts and reasoning concerning the actions of oppressed women in society, and in this case, literally confined to the walls of a prison.

Originally the purpose for WIP drama has been identified as a means for exploiting women by reducing them to the role of serving sexual gratification to a male audience. A historically primitive example of this is the 1950 released crime-drama 'Caged', which celebrates the exploration of the prison as manifested world in which viewers can "know women [...] without men!". Similarly to OITNB, the film begins with the protagonist, Marie Allen, turning into the penitentiary as a 'doe-eyed innocent' woman and gradually progresses for her harsh experiences to coarsen her into a 'hard-nosed con'. This transition is attributed to the mistreatment inflicted by the antagonistic Evelyn Harper, who is continuously presented as a symbol for female pretensions celebrating patriarchal conformation around the time of second-wave feminism. Harper's eagerness to please the men in her life is confirmed in a scene towards the climax of the film, where she is presented with a vertically panning medium close-up, dressed in clothing which evidently causes her discomfort. She is shunned by the inmates and retorts by boastfully exclaiming: "The guy outside likes the way I look! *fidgets in her outfit*"[45]. This subtle instance is symbolic of the many ways by which women in society have had to conform to what is pleasing to the man[46], despite of it causing discomfort. This idea of reluctance is deeply ingrained into the women depicted. Most of the women have back-stories which involve their self-sacrifice to the judiciary system in order to protect their husbands. as one woman states: "I never wanted to, but I couldn't leave him". [47]Correspondingly, some women also express their resentfulness to the patriarchal oppression imposed upon them, as an inmate convinces another: "You're lucky your man's dead, he can't turn you into a loser like mine did"[48]. The ventilation of such anti-patriarchal catharses are manifested through the environment of the WIP film as a voyeuristic intrusion into the thoughts of women representative of those in society, thus providing a mouth-piece for characters in WIP drama, that in the wake of second-wave feminism selectively deploy feminist discourses[49] as a means for encouraging the liberation of women.

The translated intention for WIP dramas throughout the years also demonstrates how this paradigm-shift within the genre[50] has occurred as the genre’s outsetting purpose was to objectify women in an imprisoned environment in order to appease the male gaze[51]. Shows such as ‘Prisoner’ (also known as ‘Cell Block H’)[52] demonstrate this religiously, repeating the conventions[53] of female submission to male authorities whilst being sexualised on-screen for the patriarchal conscience’s gratification. However, OITNB turns the tables on this notion as it amends this consensus of a WIP drama in order to present the viewpoints of the represented women instead. Accordingly, this insight into the thoughts of the represented women is one of the ways by which this show achieves in its endeavours to represent women accurately[54]. Within season three, a significant scene marking the debut of Ruby Rose casually intervenes mid-way through a laborious lingerie manufacturing session for the prisoners of Litchfield penitentiary. Immediately, this establishes a sense of comic relief as the scenario subverts common expectations of prison demeanour. This is achieved by distancing away from the anticipated severe atmosphere of a prison, which would be seen to restrain prisoners to the extent of even their amusement. The frame pans across Piper Chapman, the blonde-haired protagonist, as she approaches her work station with bright pink underwear in her hands, the colour of which contrasts the dullness of the surroundings, possibly in order to reinforce this sense of absurdity for comic effect. A personal discussion of bedroom etiquette between Piper and an elder inmate emerges to gratify viewers with voyeurism. Audiences are granted a peek into the ideologies of women (represented by the general layout of the WIP show), who are exhibited advocating opinions on personal matters on issues involving sexual engagement which would otherwise be subdued to a level of censorship (content control) in the media. The conversation is then intervened by Stella Carlin, a young short-haired brunette played by LGBT activist actress Ruby Rose. She laughs at Piper’s claim that wearing lingerie during sexual encounters “can make you feel powerful”, which immediately unravels a socio-political discussion among the women. Debating whether many physically attractive woman (such as Piper is represented) faces the “burden of genetic perfection” and must hence strive to attain self-worth by attaining academic qualifications to credit their value, as exemplified by Piper’s retorting declaration of her “double major in communications and comparative literature”. Extracting this conversation from its entertaining standpoint provides audiences with reasons to consider the reception of women in daily life in first-world capitalist societies, in a sense that women do more than just 'appear'[55] for the gratification of what is recognised as a primarily white, heterosexual and relatively youthful and affluent[56] audience.

OITNB does portray some women who have been almost invisible in television. It has a prominent transwoman character as well as a butch lesbian, both, types of women which have often been invisible in other television series, including those specifically designed for LGBT audiences. The series also portrays a large cast of individuals with complex detailed histories. Women are not just single narratives but are built up of complex storylines representing each part of their identity.

Considering the predisposing implications on the representation of women, race in OITNB is largely portrayed through a white lens. Whiteness becomes a privilege identity[57] during the series because Piper, the main character, is white. The stories of women of colour as well as other minority women are told through the voice of Piper Chapman. In having Piper bring issues forward minority women’s voices are silenced, and their stories are validated or made visible only through the intervention of a white woman[58]. Further, Piper is portrayed as greatly benefiting from her white privilege in being able to go beyond the role of an inmate in her relationship with prison staff such as Healy, her counselor. Having Piper come into prison and change or expose the problems that women of color or other marginalized women are experiencing during the series portrays Piper as a white saviour[59].

The portrayal of sexuality in the first season of OITNB is a little more complicated. Whilst Daya is represented as straight in her relationship with Bennet, a guard at the prison, the majority of the series focuses on the lesbian relationship between Piper and Alex. Although Piper and Alex are not the only relationship portrayed in the series, the relationship between Sophia and Crystal is not able to be categorised as Sophia is portrayed showing affection for Crystal but the two are never shown in overt or suggested sexual behaviour during the first season - which is seen as the determinant for romantic associations throughout the show. Furthermore, Crystal is portrayed as having interest in a man she met at church and asks Sophia permission to pursue him. Lastly, Big Boo acknowledges she is a lesbian, but never is portrayed in sexual acts with another women, at least not to the extent that Piper and Alex are shown.

Gender presentation in OITNB season one is largely centered through a feminine presentation. Sophia, Piper, and Daya all have a feminine gender presentation, while Big Boo is portrayed with a more masculine presentation[60], particularly through the employment of aesthetic codes instead of narrative[61]. Halberstram[62] uses the term butch to describe lesbian women who have adopted a female masculinity. Further, characteristics such as toughness and physical strength aid in giving butch lesbians a more masculine expression[63]. Big Boo embodies both of these characteristics during the first season; she is portrayed as tough and unforgiving to those who upset her. In many ways the style that women from minority groups are represented provides an extensive credibility to the show's liberation of women through the ambassadors (represented characters) of each intersectional category[64].

In conclusion, OITNB achieves more than just providing a liberated representation of women. Within the expository four hours of the show, the audience is familiarised with the conviction stories of characters including of course - Piper, but also Red, the cafeteria mogul of the prison, for whom the audience is placed on the brink of a multitude of opinions instead of simply disliking her due to her unfavourable representation towards the protagonist. The reason for this is because of the narrative’s exhibiting retrospective scenes of the characters’ pasts preceding their conviction. These flashbacks are further laudable for their diligent integration into the script as the dialogue featured in the scenes are synchronised to the present experiences of the character in question - leaving the audience gasping in awe and questionability regarding the seamlessness of the narrative. The manner in which characters are continuously developed is purposefully exploitative of the audience’s limited knowledge of the prisoners, exemplified as we are led into accepting fallacies about characters who are temporarily vilified, but may even be righteous and likeable at a later stage. Warranting this, it is important to acknowledge the producer’s liberated representation[65] of women in the show boasting a brand identity which stands for transcending beyond the traditional boundaries of television and its symbiotic relationship with social issues, to the extent that patriarchal ideologies are eroded to a greater extent than they are debatably withheld.
WORD COUNT: 3408

________________________


 

Bibliography

Works cited:
Baudrillard, J. (1994). Simulacra and simulation. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
  Bourdieu, P., & Johnson, R. (1993). The field of cultural production: Essays on art and literature. New York: Columbia University Press.
 Berger, J., & Thompson, R. F. (1975). Ways of Seeing. Educational Theatre Journal, 27(3), 439.
 Blumler, J. G., & Katz, E. (1974). The Uses of mass communications: Current perspectives on gratifications research. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.
 Brunsdon, Charlotte, Julie D'Acci, and Lynn Spigel. Feminist Television Criticism: A Reader. Oxford: Clarendon, 1997. Print.
  Branston, G., & Stafford, R. (2006). The media student's book (5th ed.). London: Routledge.
Crenshaw, K.. (1991). Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color. Stanford Law Review,43(6), 1241–1299. http://doi.org/10.2307/1229039
   Fourie, P. J. (1989). Paradigms in media research: A preliminary overview. Communication, 15(1), 32-38.
    Gibson, N. C. (2003). Fanon: The postcolonial imagination. Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press in association with Blackwell Pub.
  Jabri, V., & O'Gorman, E. (1999). Women, culture, and international relations. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
  Karlyn, K. R. (2011). Unruly girls, unrepentant mothers: Redefining feminism on screen. Austin: University of Texas Press.
   Kellison, C. (2009). Producing for TV and new media: A real-world approach for producers. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Focal Press.
   Lauretis, T. D. (1991). Queer theory: Lesbian and gay sexualities. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
  Luhmann, N. (2000). Art as a social system. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
   McMullin, J. A. (2004). Understanding social inequality: Intersections of class, age, gender, ethnicity, and race in Canada. Don Mills, Ont.: Oxford University Press.
  Mulvey, L. (1975). Visual and other pleasures. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  Neale, S. (1980). Genre. London: BFI Pub.
  Propp, V. (1968). Morphology of the folktale, (2d ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press
  Said, E., Said, E., & Said, E. (1982). Orientalism. The Antioch Review, 40(1), 104.
  Saussure, & F. (1959). Course in general linguistics. New York: Philosophical Library.
  Simons, M. A. (Ed.). (1985). Hypatia, a Journal of Feminist Philosophy : Beauvoir and Feminist Philosophy. Pergamon Press.
   Shybut, J. (1963). Delayed gratification: A study of its measurement and its relationship to certain behavioral, psychological and demographic variables.
  Stafford, B. &. (2000). The Media Student's Book (5th).
  Tasker, Y., & Negra, D. (2007). Interrogating postfeminism: Gender and the politics of popular culture. Durham: Duke University Press.

Webpages cited:
 Cosslett, R. (n.d.). Transgender Orange is the New Black star Laverne Cox on Caitlyn Jenner and oppressive beauty standards for women. Retrieved from http://www.radiotimes.com/news/2015-07-26/orange-is-the-new-blacks-wonder-woman-laverne-cox-on-being-a-transgender-trailblazer
 Dupont, V. (2014). Netflix Has Revolutionized The TV Industry Several Times In Just 17 Years. Retrieved March 14, 2016, from http://www.businessinsider.com/afp-netflix-the-revolution-that-changed-the-us-tv-landscape-2014-9?IR=T
 Ferreday, D. (n.d.). Orange is the New Black is fast becoming a feminist classic. Retrieved from http://theconversation.com/orange-is-the-new-black-is-fast-becoming-a-feminist-classic-40353
 Forbes. (2014) How Netflix Is Changing Our Brains, And Why That May Not Be All Good. (n.d.). Retrieved April 15, 2016, from http://www.forbes.com/sites/daviddisalvo/2014/06/08/how-netflix-is-changing-our-brains-and-why-that-may-not-be-all-good/#2e8aa9444d4b
  Recorded Future. (2013) Viewership Analysis of Hit Show 'Orange Is the New Black' Retrieved April 15, 2016, from https://www.recordedfuture.com/orange-is-the-new-black-viewership/
 Rorke, R. (2014). ‘Orange Is the New Black’ ignites a TV revolution for women | New York Post. Retrieved from http://nypost.com/2014/06/04/orange-is-the-new-black-ignites-a-tv-revolution-for-women
 Soules, C. (n.d.). What 'Orange Is The New Black' Gets Right and Wrong About | Indiewire. Retrieved from http://www.indiewire.com/article/what-orange-is-the-new-black-gets-right-and-wrong-about-the-criminal-justice-system-20150701
  SWSG Blogging Corps. (n.d.). Orange is the New Black: New Voices for Women - SWSG. Retrieved from http://swsg.org/orange-is-the-new-black-new-voices-for-women/
  The Feminist Wire. (n.d.). Orange is the new black - Feminist analysis. Retrieved from http://www.thefeministwire.com/2013/08/a-critical-analysis-of-orange-is-the-new-black-the-appropriation-of-women-of-color/
  "Weeds Creator Jenji Kohan Talks Women, Humor, Race, Sex, And Her New Show About Ladies in Prison." Http://www.themarysue.com/jenji-kohan-orange-is-the-new-black/. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Dec. 2015. <http://www.themarysue.com/jenji-kohan-orange-is-the-new-black/>.

Works consulted:
Couldry, N., & London School of Economics and Political Science. (2003). Media, symbolic power and the limits of Bourdieu's field theory. London: Media @LSE.
   Doane, M. A. (1991). Femmes fatales: Feminism, film theory, psychoanalysis. New York: Routledge.
 Foucault, M. (1990). The History of Sexuality: An Introduction, Volume 1. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
 Hall, S., & Open University. (1997). Representation: Cultural representations and signifying practices. London: Sage in association with the Open University.

Moving image texts:
  Abraham, P. (Director). (2014, June 6). It Was the Change [Television series episode]. In Orange is the New Black. Netflix.
 Foster, J. (Director). (2013, July/August). "Lesbian Request Denied" [Television series episode]. In Orange Is The New Black. Netflix.
 Kohan, J. (Writer). (2013-2015). Orange Is the New Black [Television series]. Netflix.
 Newsom, J. S. (Director). (2011). Miss Representation [Motion picture]. USA.
 Petrie, D. (Director). (2001). Miss Congeniality [Motion picture].
 Trim, M. (Director). (2013, July/August). "I Wasn't Ready" [Television series episode]. In Orange Is The New Black. Netflix.
 Wald, J. (Producer), Cromwell, J. (Director), & Kellogg, V., Schoenfeld, B. C., & Steiner, M. (Writers). (1950). Caged [Motion picture]. United States: Warner Bros. Pictures.
  Watson, R. (Writer). (1979, February 27). Prisoner [Television series]. Network Ten.






[1] ‘It Was the Change”, Orange Is The New Black (2014)
[2] Stafford (2000)
[3] ibid.
[4] Jaffe, Brooke (2013)
[5] Brunsdon, Charlotte, Julie D'Acci, Lynn Spigel (1997)
[6] Rorke, R (2014)
[7] Luhmann, N (2000)
[8]  SWSG (2013)
[9] Mulvey, L., (1975)
[10] Crenshaw, K. (1991)
[11] Dupont, V. (2014)
[12] Kellison, C. (2009)
[13] McMullin, J. A. (2004)
[14] Forbes. (2014)
[15] Recorded Future. (2013)
[16] Shybut, J. (1963)
[17]  Forbes. (2014)
[18] (Rosin)
[19] (Rosin, 2015)
[20] ibid.
[21](Salon, 2015)
[22](Propp, V, 1968)
[23] (Brunsdon, Charlotte, Julie D'Acci, Lynn Spigel, 1997)
[24] ibid.
[25] (Miss Congeniality)
[26] (Orange Is The New Black, 2013)
[27] (Brunsdon, Charlotte, Julie D'Acci, Lynn Spigel, 1997)
[28] (Propp, V, 1968)
[29]  ibid.
[30]  (Mulvey, 1975)
[31] ibid.
[32] ibid.
[33]  (Stafford)
[34] Orange Is The New Black (2013)
[35]  Eid, M (2002)
[36]  Stafford (2000)
[37] Miss Representation
[38] Catherine Constable (2002)
[39] Stafford (2000)
[40] Brunsdon, Charlotte, Julie D'Acci, Lynn Spigel (1997)
[41] Chbosky (2006)
[42] Mulvey (1975)
[43] SWSG (2014)
[45]  CAGED (1950)
[46]  Mulvey (1975)
[47]  CAGED (1950)
[48]  ibid.
[49] Brunsdon, Charlotte, Julie D'Acci, Lynn Spigel (1997)
[50] Neale, S. (1980)
[51] Mulvey, L. (1975)
[52] Prisoner (1979)
[53] Neale, S. (1980)
[54] Baudrillard (1981)
[55] Berger (1975)
[56] Brunsdon, Charlotte, Julie D'Acci, Lynn Spigel (1997)
[57] Gibson, N. C. (2003)
[58] Said (1982)
[59] Hughey (2014)
[60] Lauretis, T. D. (1991)
[61] Brunsdon, Charlotte, Julie D'Acci, Lynn Spigel (1997)
[62] Halberstram (1998)
[63] ibid.
[64] Clark (1969)
[65] Fourie (1989)